Cell functions

Dealing with challenging behaviour is a high priority for people working in the health and social care sectors. In their day-to-day routines, workers encounter a wide variety of behaviour which can significantly, and adversely, affect the quality of the lives of those involved. It is important, therefore, that learners understand the contexts in which such behaviour occurs in order to develop their knowledge and understanding of the causes and effects of challenging behaviour, and the range of methods used to deal with it.Health and social care workers are bound by professional codes of ractice and legislation which determine how they must respond in particular situations. Learners must understand these legal frameworks and the outcomes they can have for workers and service users. This unit aims to develop learner knowledge and understanding in these key areas and underpins other units in the qualification. It is essential in terms of preparing learners to get the most from any work experience they undertake.In order to complete the unit, learners must apply their learning by contributing to the development of a strategy for dealing with challenging behaviour. They will need to consider the skills needed to minimise the effects of challenging behaviour, such as recognising triggers', and appropriate methods of intervention. This unit enables learners to assess some of the difficulties involved in working in the health and social care sectors. It is suitable for all learners interested in a career in these sectors.

Kantian Ethics concerning human Cloning Essay

Cloning is a procedure conceived to notion in the late 1960s, but it is only recently that it was fully understood and that scientists have started to figure out how to successfully copy the genetic composition of one organism to another. Since science already knows how to do this, the only problems and obstacles that remains is efficiency and the success ratio of each operation. The cloning process consists of taking the nucleus of an organism, and placing it, along with the DNA that contains all the genetic material, in place of the nucleus of the host egg. The egg then forms an embryo and matures into the same exact â€Å"copy†, at least genetically, as the original organism. Already done on mammals, cloning is something that can be extended to utilize humans as subjects. In the future it will be wholly possible to create human clones to serve whatever purpose they were conceived for. However, presently there are numerous ethical issues surrounding cloning and there are pro blems about the implications of the use of cloning for the purpose of medicine. This issue plagues us so much that the constant objections of bioethicists and political and religious leaders have caused the US Government to propose a ban on all research concerning human cloning until a conclusion is reached on the moral and ethical aspects of the process. (Macer, 2) In this paper, I will discuss how Kantian views and ethics help us understand whether it is morally ethical to clone for the purpose of bettering our lives. Two points have to be distinguished. How exactly will human cloning aid medicine and society, and the implications of human worth and dignity when applied to clones. Kantian ethics were proposed by Immanuel Kant in his critical writing of the â€Å"Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals†. Kant argued that â€Å"non-rational things have only a relative value as means and are consequently called things. Rational beings, on the other hand, are called persons because their nature already marks them out as ends in themselves†¦ for unless this is so, nothing at all of absolute value would be found anywhere†. (Britannica, 473) All persons are able to adjust their behavior to what they reason to be moral behavior, but in using this capacity that all humans possess, they must act upon a categorical imperative to treat all similarly situated  people equally. They must uphold to their moral maxims and make their actions universal law, extending it equally to all persons. Kant reformulates this idea and states that we should â€Å"act in such a way that you always treat humanity, whether in your own person or in the person of any other, never simply as a means, but always at the same times as an end†. (Britannica, 472) This means that we should never use people as only a means, and that because all persons have intrinsic human worth they should all be considered as ends in themselves. Kant’s vision involves only persons or rational agents. If no ‘person’ or rationality is present then it can be argued that the agent is simply a thing. Something that cannot rationalize and is not conscious of its existence cannot be argued as having human worth. So it is wholly possible, through some applications of science, to create â€Å"headless† clones that are not fully developed in the forebrain and who therefore cannot rationalize or exist consciously. (Friedman, 3) If able to be kept alive after their conception in order to mature, these clones can be used for harvesting of their organs for various medical purposes. Kant would not object to these kinds of clones because his concept of rationality is respected in accordance to the categorical imperative. If only rational agents are to be used as an end, and if no rationality exists, then whatever is left can be used only as a means to further some goal with no ethical wrongdoing involved. Developing a â€Å"headless† clone involves a process that prevents rationality and consciousness from ever being formed. This can be paralleled to other procedures that involve the same block of formation of rationality, particularly any form of birth control. Not allowing the development of â€Å"headless† clones because it is immoral makes any sort of birth control thus immoral too, because they also involve the preventing of the development of consciousness and rational thought. (Friedman, 4) If this imperative were to be upheld to a moral maxim, then we would need to be consistent in our actions and ban birth control just as human cloning is banned now. However, if human clones are developed as persons (with a whole brain and  fully functioning in every aspect) then our perspectives need to be changed to take a more moral view. Is it possible to morally clone a human to become an end in themselves? Suppose the case of a childless family where the mother is unable to conceive for whatever reasons. Somatic cell cloning can provide the family with a way to obtain a child through surrogate birth. (Friedman, 2) Even though copying the genetic composition of one parent and making the child a copy of them is somewhat strange, it is understandable from the parents’ point of view. If they are unable to naturally conceive, they should still be given some sort of chance to have a child. Cloning gives the parents this chance to have a child and have a somewhat normal family as an outcome. In this case the clone is treated as an end. He will grow up to be healthy and hopefully be regarded the same as a naturally conceived child. When he grows up, the clone will not denounce his existence. If asked the question of whether he would have rather not been born, the child would most likely thank cloning for his conception. The similar can be said for a clone that is used as a means for something but eventually becoming an end in themselves. Suppose the case of a family where a serious disease plagues an existing child and that only a specific blood type or a certain type of bone marrow will save him. If no donors are available, the child’s only ticket to survival might be a clone. Using the same genetic composition, his twin can be cloned in order to save his life. If this cloned twin is afterwards discarded, because he no longer serves a purpose or if he dies during the transfusion, this would in turn be highly unethical and immoral. However, if the parents exercise the human right of the clone as a person to exist, they are acting in accordance with the categorical imperative as stated above. They are extending the moral maxim to a universal law, and are treating the clone as a person, justly. The clone then becomes not simply a means to save a child’s life but an end in themselves also . The clone’s rationality and consciousness is not jeopardized. And in the same way as above, the clone would be thankful for having saved someone with his existence and would not regret his life. The immediately foreseeable problems with cloning for the purpose of childbirth might be seen when parents want to dictate the genetic makeup of  their child. They might not only want to eradicate genes that make a person susceptible to certain diseases, but they also might want to eliminate other unfavorable genes. Genes that control a person’s susceptibility to violence or other emotional factors, or genes that control a person’s appearance, such as height, hair and eye color and physical condition. In this way, parents might be able to mold genetically superior children to their liking. This would is most probable to eliminate uniqueness and individuality. There would be no randomness or pureness of nature in humans. Everything would be similar because certain specific qualities would be more favorable and popular. Also gene superiority would label clones as of higher value and might cause discrimination based solely on one’s genetic makeup. Only through tot al anonymity would this be preventable, and this condition is impossible. This problem can be directly related to the categorical imperative so crucial to Kant and Kantian ethics. Because morality must extended to be universal, it is imperative that both the superior clones and regularly genetically endowed humans are treated with similar regard. This however would seem to not be the case; the clones would always be favored in any situation. Therefore, this treatment would be immoral, as it would be immoral to clone human persons for such purposes, which are based only on vanity of people and discrimination of less favored genes. Many ethical issues and moral aspects of human cloning must be observed to get a larger picture of its implications. Kantianism gives us a way of differentiating in which situations will cloning be ethical or, the opposite, immoral. However, Kantian ethics is pretty specific in its situations and it can’t give a much more general and broad understanding of the ethics of cloning. It doesn’t tell us what to do, it only tells us whether something is moral or not. Kantianism is not a guide of morals but it is a very good understanding of them. Bibliography Friedman, Dan. â€Å"Cloning† Macalester Journal of Philosophy Vol. 9, 1999 Gardner, Jennifer. â€Å"To Clone or Not to Clone† http://pages.prodigy.net/darvi/clone.htm (12 Feb, 2001) â€Å"Kant, Immanuel† Encyclopaedia Britannica: In Depth Knowledge 1999 ed. Macer, Darryl R.J., Ph.D. â€Å"Ethical Challenges as we approach the end of the Human Genome Project.† N.p: n.p. 2000 Ruse, Michael, and Sheppard, Aryne. Cloning: Responsible Science or Technomadness? Prometheus Books, December 2000

Perinatal Depression In Black Women Health And Social Care Essay

Perinatal depression is defined as depression which has either originated during gestation or one twelvemonth station kid birth. [ 1 ] The overall prevalence of perinatal depression is estimated to be 14.5 % per centum of all the gestations in the United States. [ 2 ] The estimated prevalence of perinatal depression in African American adult females is higher than white adult females. [ 3 ] Perinatal depression is multi factorial. Major hazard factors for perinatal depression are undiagnosed depression in the prenatal period, bing major depressive upset, past history of gestation with post-partum depression. The chief hazard factors hypothesized are low socio-economic position, societal isolation, increased prevalence of confidant spouse force, increased figure of unwanted gestations, increased religionism, cultural factors such as stigma associated with seeking mental wellness services, deficiency of societal support and societal detachment, increased high hazard behaviour such as smoke, alcohol addiction and drug maltreatment during gestation, increased prevalence of HIV/AIDS and self perceived favoritism. Surveies show that African American adult females from interior metropolis countries have GED instruction and a few adult females have a college grade. Unwanted gestation in teenage, deficiency of entree to exigency preventives, and reduced use of abortion services are the causes for higher rates of high school dropouts in these adult females. Food, lodging and occupation insecurities are more frequently seen in adult females from interior metropolis. Odd work hours, deficiency of insurance or under insurance, high strain occupations have inauspicious effects on the wellness of the female parent. Unsafe vicinities and deficiency of supermarkets can restrict the entree to fresh fruits and veggies. Most adult females depend on nutrient casts for their monthly food markets. Low SES Poor Health, Depression Social isolation reported by adult females with perinatal depression. Studies show that most adult females are individual female parents with no fellows or hubbies. Lack of societal support and societal detachment are other societal barriers experienced by these adult females. Lack of cognition on parenting, nutrition, contraceptive method during gestation, services available through plans like Healthy Start, WIC and how to voyage through these systems for wellness attention are the major countries where support services are either losing or non easy available. Many African American adult females are either victims of physical, emotional, sexual or more than one signifier of confidant spouse force. Rape and incest are really normally reported signifiers of sexual maltreatment. Intimate spouse force can ensue in low ego regard and do adult females more prone to depression during gestation. Besides, culprits are more likely to be drug maltreaters and may forcefully expose the adult females to drugs. The unmet demand for exigency preventive in African American adult females is higher than white adult females. The rate of elected abortions in African American adult females is lower than white adult females. The barriers to exigency preventive are cost, deficiency of information about the timing of exigency preventive usage, cultural barriers such as guilt and shame. It is estimated that the prevalence of unwanted gestation in the United States is 50 % . The mean age of maternity in African American adult females is in early 20s versus late 20s and mid 30s for white adult females. Besides of all the uninsured or underinsured female parents, bulk are African American. Surveies suggest that African American adult females prefer psychotherapeutics compared to pharmacotherapy. Black adult females are more likely to go to church than white adult females and they approach spiritual leaders in the church for support. Increased religionism is one of the drive grounds for decreased and less frequent abortions in African American adult females and increased figure of unwanted gestations. Many Orthodox Catholic churches do non approve preventive usage in any signifier and promote abstain merely methods for contraceptive method. Some surveies suggest that using mental wellness is perceived as a societal stigma in African American adult females particularly among Haitians. High hazard behaviours such as smoke and utilizing street drugs during gestation are more prevailing in African American adult females. These adult females are more likely to hold past history of engagement in drug trafficking and many have pending eviction or public-service corporation cuts. It is hard to badger out whether depression caused the usage of drugs or the usage of drugs caused depression. Public Health impact Complications of perinatal depression are placental abnormalcies, self-generated abortions and preeclampsia. Depressed female parents have hapless female parent to child fond regard and chest provender less often. Perinatal depression additions maternal morbidity and decreases overall good being by doing day-to-day life damage. Depressed female parents have increased pre term birth associated with high rates of low births. The babies of down female parents have higher prevalence of perinatal birth complications and more frequent NICU admittances. Some surveies suggest that these babies may confront developmental issues and may non turn to allow percentile for age. As down female parents feed their babies less often, there can be an increased hazard of diarrhoeas due to bottle provenders. Depressed female parent Sick babe Healthy Start Initiative is a federal enterprise to supply mental wellness services for low income African American adult females. hapless referral and usage of mental wellness services Federal degree Including support services for mental wellness Intervention The barriers experienced by the African American adult females can be structural, knowledge based and attitudinal. The structural barriers can run from deficiency of coverage by insurance, inability to pay, inadequate kid attention, transit troubles and distance to go to clinic. The normally seen cognition barriers are deficiency of clip, non cognizing whom to reach, how to put up and assignment, non cognizing what intervention might be the best for oneself. The attitudinal barriers include worrying what others would believe, concerns about effectual aid one can acquire, deficiency of household support for acquiring the intervention and trouble in going motivated to seek intervention. Problem work outing instruction Medicine is impermanent Skills can be used over life clip Negative life events can act upon mental wellness Case directors can play the function of job work outing instruction Administration of BECK trial. Mild to chair depression can be eligible for the job work outing instruction. Severe depression can be provided with engagement interview to assist voyage through mental wellness service Describe job work outing instruction Describe battle interview 0-3-6 Focus groups instance directors, adult females having job work outing instruction, engagement interview Culturally acceptable, more unfastened ended Provides something for everybody Decreases the load on community mental wellness Centres Can better the use of mental wellness services Breast feeding support groups Social support group Policy degree support to develop the instance directors Church based activities Education on contraceptive method Breastfeeding, abortion support groups Weak job work outing accomplishments and life jobs make a individual more prone to depression. There is besides rearward causing, as depression additions, the ability to place and work out job lessenings. Problem work outing accomplishments will authorise the adult females to hold a sense of control on their jobs and utilize them in the hereafter to forestall depression. Problem work outing therapy will assist adult females place their jobs and happen realistic solutions to them. It will besides supply adult females with a systematic problem-solving scheme. & A ; acirc ; ˆ?Engagement interview is an individualised, psychosocial intercession, based on an integrating of rules and techniques of ethnographic interviewing ( EI ) and motivational interviewing ( MI ) . & A ; acirc ; ˆA? This methodological analysis can turn to cultural barriers experienced by low income adult females and offer a curative scheme to prosecute adult females in mental wellness services. The interview is based on unfastened ended inquiries technique and is delivered over 45 to 60 proceedingss to run into the specific demands of the client. The motivational constituents address working with ambivalency. Ethnographic rules on the other manus aid to research in a non judgmental mode the values and experiences of the clients. Recognitions Rosie Munoz-Lopez Xandra Negron Emily Fineberg Barbara Gottlieb 1. Gaynes BN, G.N. , Meltzer-Brody S, Lohr KN, Swinson T, Gartlehner G, Brody S, and M. WC. , Perinatal depression: prevalence, testing truth, and testing results. Evid Rep Technol Assess ( Summ ) , 2005 Feb. 119: p. 1-8. 2. Sit DK, F.C. , Svidergol D, White J, Wimer M, Bish B, Wisner KL, Best patterns: an emerging best pattern theoretical account for perinatal depression attention. Psychiatr Serv. , 2009 Nov. 60 ( 11 ) : p. 1429-31. 3. O'Mahen, H.A. and H.A. Flynn, Preferences and perceived barriers to intervention for depression during the perinatal period. J Womens Health ( Larchmt ) , 2008. 17 ( 8 ) : p. 1301-9.

Why would satanism be called magic Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Why would satanism be called magic - Assignment Example Satanism controls the world. It is the defining platform for all entertainment sources on Earth. The movie industry is under the satanic forces that help it grow. The satanic forces make use of supernatural powers to influence thinking that leads to liking particular issues and disliking others. It is manipulative in nature. The invoking of satanic influence requires that someone have a special connection with the satanic forces before invoking. For that reason, Satanism only works for those who establish communion with the satanic power proprietors. There will be a desirable outcome if the one was invoking or calling upon the satanic powers to take over their line of duty, has that establishment of a connection to effect the communication. In addition to that, Satanism effectively works with previous connections that were a quality establishment pathways of communication. The music industry predominantly works under some satanic powers. Most artists who establish their names on the international platform get promotions through satanic influence. The artists use mind-influencing powers to make their fans like their compositions and poems. The Satanism itself requires that someone becomes a slave of their own and that they pay tribute to the sanctity of darkness and give in to the demands of the skin rather that control the dignity of the soul. Magic is virtually the definition upon which Satanism takes basis. Magic conforms to two types of manifestations.

Corporate Governance at Wal-Mart Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Corporate Governance at Wal-Mart - Case Study Example Wal-Mart has a total of 15 directors on its board. S. Robson Walton, the eldest son of founder Sam Walton, serves as Chairman of the Board, and H. Lee Scott, the Chief Executive Officer, serves on the board as well. Other members of the board include Aida Alvarez, James Breyer, M. Michele Burns, James I. Cash, Jr., Roger C. Corbett, Douglas N. Daft, David D. Glass, Roland A. Hernandez, Allen I. Questrom, Jack C. Shewmaker, Jim C. Walton, Christopher J. Williams, and Linda S. Wolf. The members of the Board of directors come from a much diversified background. Belonging to different fields and business sectors, they have gained several skills and aptitude. Some of them are from countries other than U.S.A. They all possess ample of experience, knowledge and due to several years of service, they have got several connections. All of this adds up to their profile as plus points which makes them worth the job. Members such as David and Shewmaker have been serving since 1977-78 while other members that are currently on the board joined between the year 2003 and 2006. Mr. Allen joined in June 2007. The board members are responsible for making managing and controlling the committees for specific purposes. These committees are in-charge of several operations of the organization respectively. Their job includes controlling and managing the finances, operations and other business functions of Wal-Mart. They are actually there to assist the Board of Directors in the strategic decision making process and overall management of Wal-Mart. The members of the respective committees' obligations include; To possess full information about the financial details of the company. To actively review the equity status of the company and recommend changes to have a legitimate and profitable balance of finances. Make suggestions to the board regarding the financial and global policies, the equity structure, the acquisitions and other matters. Perform an analysis of the financial position of the company and recommend attainable goals respectively. Regular review of the major projects. Constant relationship management with its financial partners such as banks and other financial institutions. Making suggestions regarding the financial statements, the dividends and the company's budgets. The committee therefore serves as an advisory body and acts as a representative of the board in the process of strategic decision making and its successful implementation by controlling the overall operations of the company. The top management group of the company includes the board of directors. Apart from them others senior officers along with their respective designations are; 1. Eduardo Castro-Wright: Executive Vice President and President and Chief Executive Officer, Wal-Mart Stores Division 2. M. Susan Chambers: Executive Vice President of People Division 3. Patricia A. Curran: Executive Vice President, People, Wal-Mart Stores Division 4. Leslie A. Dach: Executive Vice President, Corporate Affairs and Government Relations 5. Linda M. Dillman: Executive Vice President, Risk Management, Benefits and Sustainability 6. Michael T. Duke: Vice Chairman, International Division 7. Johnnie C. Dobbs: Executive Vice President, Logistics and Supply Chain 8. John E. Fleming: Executive Vice P

Annunciation of Mary A Significant Image in the Christian Theology Essay

Annunciation of Mary A Significant Image in the Christian Theology - Essay Example This article will discuss in detail  the image of Annunciation of Mary, starting from the story as given in "Protoevangelium of James" and moving on to later time periods. This writing will take a look at this particular picture of Mary as it gradually develops through the ages and represents her gradual rise in the minds and beliefs of Christian theology. It will also focus on the aspect of representing the perpetual virginity of Mary through this image of ‘Annunciation of Mary’ to allay the fears in the minds of the orthodox creed. Early Christian literature that is of the imaginative type and tells us stories of a religious nature are known as the apocryphal gospels. These were first written in the second century and a certain variation of these apocryphal scriptures are known as ‘proto-gospels’ which give us the first pictures of Mary, right from her birth. One of these proto-gospels, known as the â€Å"Protevangelium of James†, is supposedly written by James, son of Joseph, from his first marriage, and dates even prior to that of Luke’s gospel. Here in James gospel, we get a beautiful picture of Mary’s Annunciation with the archangel Gabriel, described by Knight, as, â€Å"And she took the pitcher, and went out to fill it with water. And, behold, a voice saying:  Hail, you who have received  grace; the  Lord is with you;  blessed  are you among  women! And she looked around, on the right hand and on the left, to see whence this voice came. And she went away, tre mbling, to her house, and put down the pitcher; and taking the purple, she sat down on her seat, and drew it out. And, behold, an  angel  of the  Lord  stood before her, saying:  Fear  not,  Mary; for you have found  grace  before the  Lord  of all, and you shall conceive, according to His word. And she hearing, reasoned with herself, saying: Shall I conceive by the  Lord, the living  God?

Trends in Supply Chain Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Trends in Supply Chain Management - Essay Example Thus, with reference to the current technological innovation, customers expect an efficient system that is both cost effective and reliable for commercial and private use. Operations within an individual market clog the morale of conducting business and restrict diversity therefore leading to reactive industries. With reference to international trade, various investors and product developers are able to develop and create products resembling the demands of the global customers (Green, Whitten, Inman, 2008). In addition, the use of specific strategies in some regions to manage costs, has transpired the trading of best practices leading, in some cases, to unified code of conduct within the logistics industry (Handfield, Straube, Pfohl, and Wieland, 2013). With reference to customer satisfaction, globalization creates interaction between various business blocs thus influencing the development, marketing, distribution, and sale of alternative products. The logistics industry comprises of a network of companies operating in both local and international sectors. These networks help to sustain the industry through the handling of segmented logistics’ service-tasks (Hanningan, & Mangan, 2001). The collapse of one segment in the network has the potential of interfering with global logistics operations. Following the trend of industries experiencing economic-crisis aftershock effects, research suggests that business blocs should loosen ties with volatile markets and implement strategies sustainable within a narrowed logistics’ environment (Florin, n.d). Green, K., Whitten, D., Inman, A. (2008). The Impact of Logistics Performance on Organization Performance in a Supply Chain Context. Supply Chain Management: An International Journal, Vol 13, No. 4: pp. 317-327. Retrieved February 14, from Academic search complete. Hanningan, K., & Mangan, J. (2001). The Role of Logistics and Supply Chain Management in

The language of health informatics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

The language of health informatics - Essay Example of uniform terminology, coding and standardization of the data; and†¨4) various information standards and organizations that may be applicable, and possibly required, for this project. †¨Ã¢â‚¬ ¨ Several types of databases can be used in informatics. According to Crawford (2010), there are five types of databases that can be used in informatics: flat file databases, hierarchical databases, network databases, object orientated databases, and relational databases (p. 1). Database characteristics should be such, that, when employed throughout the hospitals and various centers, make sense for that center. For example, it doesn’t make much sense if one organization is using a flat file database when what it really needs is a program that addresses hierarchical management techniques. If the idea or end goal is to have uniformity, then the same databases should ideally be chosen in order to manage everything. This will ensure that all of the organizations within the scope of the project are working in coordination with one another. There are several types of medical data. According to Types of Medical Data (2010), there is â€Å"narrative textual data (HPI, social/family Hx, general review of systems, failure to thrive); numerical measurements (lab results, vital signs, and measurements); recorded signals (e.g., ECG, graphical tracing); and pictures (e.g., radiologic images, sketches)† (p. 1). How all of this information is entered into the computer depends, again, upon the program(s) that will be used. As such, it might be a good idea for the committee to vote on which type of program(s) they would like to see implemented when given a choice amongst programs, given the information they will be given about the field of informatics. Obviously, whatever information that is inputted into the system must be standardized. In that sense, whatever program that is chosen by the committee should be chosen carefully and with national and international standards in mind

Physic (Medical Imaging & Laser Surgery) Coursework

Physic (Medical Imaging & Laser Surgery) - Coursework Example The wavelength reduces with the increase of absorbed energy (Zettili, 2009). The wavelength for visible light is in the range of 750nm-400nm. X-rays wavelength is in the range of 10nm upward. The wavelength of x-rays is extremely short as compared to the wavelength of visible light. The order of absorbency for x rays from the most absorbent to the least absorbent for the following materials is as follows: copper, glass, wood and air while the order of absorbency for visible light is as following: air, wood glass and lastly copper. From the list it can deduced that the order of absorbency of X rays is exactly vice versa to that of visible light for the mention materials (Kusky and Cullen, 2009). When the produced x-ray is passed through the body, some part of the energy is absorbed by the body during the rest pass. The opposite side of the body is a plate containing a film that detects the X- rays and captures the attenuated x-rays. As x-ray emerges from the body, it contains an image in the form of variation in exposure across the image area. Variations are as a result of different rate of attenuation of x ray by the object. The plate is sprayed with powder that adheres to the charged areas hence electrostatic charge is formed. The heavily charged areas produce more detailed information as powder gathers more quickly in those areas. X rays are more attenuated by denser material than light material; therefore bones will attenuate more rays than fats and muscles. From the above picture, the bones are clearly seen (denser material) while muscles, blood and fats cannot distinctly be seen. Shadings show them. The CT scanner uses x-rays that are emitted in a fan shape to produce 3D images of objects. It has rotating gantry with x-ray tube mounted on it and arc shaped detector. When the x-ray beam is aligned by collimator and emitted, the rotating frame spins the tube and detector by 360 degrees

The World Into Which Christianity Came Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

The World Into Which Christianity Came - Essay Example 20, 2007) and about 6 million are considered practicing or doing the mandates of the religion, including attendance to regular mass, doing the sacraments, and participating in missionary works. Although they trace to the same founder, Christians are classified into different congregations each having their own sets of ideals, fundamental beliefs, and practices, which are either solely based on the Scriptures or with tradition. The largest Christian group is the Roman Catholics. Other groups include: The Amish, Baptist churches, Church of England, Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, Church of Scotland, Eastern Orthodox Church, Jehovah's Witnesses, Methodist Church, Pentecostalism, Catholic Church, Seventh-day Adventists among others that existed throughout the world. The popularity of the Christian movement and its rapid acceptance in the early centuries of its development is a manifestation of the need of the peoples during those times. The society in which this interest group had started must have something that served as a driving force to accept the teachings of Christianity. Understanding the need of these generations would provide a good picture and vivid perceptive why such ideals evolved into a widely received trend and values. The Society Upon Which Christianity Christianity emerged in the 1st century and was congregated by Jews and their non-Jewish converts who accepted the beliefs of Jewish Christians. Initially though, the teachings inherent in the Christian societies are meant for the Jewish people, but the message became universal, which means Jewish and non-Jewish alike benefit from the teachings and are accepted into the society. There were several precursors to the growth and strengthening of the Christian movement. Among which is the growing need for independence of the Jewish people, and the collapse of Judaism in the Roman society. A society of the oppressed Why do we consider the Jews hunger for independent life Basically Christianity traced its roots from Judaism with its founder, Jesus Christ belonging to a sect of the Judaism religion. Before Christianity appeared as a religion, all Jews could either be classified as Pharisees, Sadducees, or Essenes (C. George Boeree's "A Brief History of Judaism"). The entry point of Christianity was based on the conditions of the Jewish people under the rule of the Roman Empire. The Jews, claiming to be God's people had been in bondage for a long time and was very desperate for freedom. About a hundred years before Jesus was born, the Romans granted them control over their kingdom but internal divisions weakened the Jewish kingdom that prompted the Romans to take control over once again in 63 BCE (BBC Team's "History of Judaism"). Oppression were felt by the lowly Jewish not only from the Romans but also from other Jewish who ruled them under Roman controls. The priests or Sadducees were allied to the rulers and lost favor with the people, who turned increasingly to the Pharisees or Scribes, from whose group Rabbis or teachers arose. Jesus was considered one among those messianic teachers who emerged from the oppressed Jewish society. Under the circumstances of the Jewish race, the people

Research methodologies-------the reason of the talent flows from a Essay

Research methodologies-------the reason of the talent flows from a state owned bank to a private bank - Essay Example The services offered by the bank includes retail banking, corporate banking, foreign currency transaction, consumer credit, Great Wall debit and credit card services, investment banking, fund management and clearing and settlement (Bank of China, n.d.; Bloomberg, 2013a; Bloomberg, 2013b; The Financial Times Ltd., 2013). The other bank which is considered in the study is CMBC. CMBC was established in the year 1996 in Beijing. It is non-state owned enterprise and was founded in strict compliance with the regulations and rules lead down by the commercial banking law and the company law (CMBC, n.d.). The bank conducts commercial banking business by providing loan, deposits, issues financial bonds, discounts, settlements, government bond trading and underwriting, bank guarantee, letter of credit and other financial services (Bloomberg, 2013c; Bloomberg, 2013d). The study is conducted on the employees and the human resource manager of the two organizations in order to gain a clear understa nding regarding the selection and the rewards policies and how these are related to the talent flow from the state owned banks to the private owned banks. 4.1 Employees of Bank of China This section briefs about the responses of the employees of Bank of China regarding the study. ... nts came to know about the vacancy from an advertisement given in the newspaper and rest that is 5 percent of the respondents was selected through campus recruitment. On asking the employees of Bank of China regarding how did they apply and when did they get call; they said that after going through the details of the position and the eligibility criteria mentioned in the notice, they need to fill up the application form available on the website of the bank and send it to the human resource department of the bank via e-mail as mentioned in the notice. About 50 percent of the respondents received a call from the bank after three months of sending the application; whereas almost 30 percent and 20 percent of the respondents got a call after 60 and 75 days respectively. When the question regarding how many rounds of interview did the candidate faced was asked the employees of Bank of China, about 100 percent of the respondents replied that they faced only one round of interview. However, they stated that there is one round for lower and lower middle level of recruitment but in case of higher level the number of interview ranges from 2 to 3. The interview is only conducted after the candidates have successfully passed the written examination. When the employees were asked whether they think that the selection procedure that the organization follows is an appropriate way to judge the potential of the candidate, they said that the selection procedures included resume screening, written examination and interview; after the candidate qualifies these steps then background investigation and physical examination are conducted. About 60 percent of the respondents feel that the selection procedure used by the organization in an appropriate way to judge the potential of a candidate.

Philosophy of Education Essay Example for Free

Philosophy of Education Essay The word education is used sometimes to signify the activity, process, or enterprise of educating or being educated and sometimes to signify the discipline or field of study taught in schools of education that concerns itself with this activity, process, or enterprise. As an activity or process, education may be formal or informal, private or public, individual or social, but it always consists in cultivating dispositions (abilities, skills, knowledges, beliefs, attitudes, values, and character traits) by certain methods. As a discipline, education studies or reflects on the activity or enterprise by asking questions about its aims, methods, effects, forms, history, costs, value, and relations to society. Definition The philosophy of education may be either the philosophy of the process of education or the philosophy of the discipline of education. That is, it may be part of the discipline in the sense of being concerned with the aims, forms, methods, or results of the process of educating or being educated; or it may be metadisciplinary in the sense of being concerned with the concepts, aims, and methods of the discipline. However, even in the latter case it may be thought of as part of the discipline, just as metaphilosophy is thought of as a part of philosophy, although the philosophy of science is not regarded as a part of science. Historically, philosophies of education have usually taken the first form, but under the influence of analytical philosophy, they have sometimes taken the second. In the first form, philosophy of education was traditionally developed by philosophers–for example, Aristotle, Augustine, and John Locke–as part of their philosophical systems, in the context of their ethical theories. However, in the twentieth century philosophy of education tended to be developed in schools of education in the context of what is called foundations of education, thus linking it with other parts of the discipline of education–educational history, psychology, and sociology–rather than with other parts of philosophy. It was also developed by writers such as Paul Goodman and Robert M. Hutchins who were neither professional philosophers nor members of schools of education. Types As there are many kinds of philosophy, many philosophies, and many ways of philosophizing, so there are many kinds of educational philosophy and ways of doing it. In a sense there is no such thing as the philosophy of education; there are only philosophies of education that can be classified in many different ways. Philosophy of education as such does not describe, compare, or explain any enterprises to systems of education, past or present; except insofar as it is concerned with the tracing of its own history, it leaves such inquiries to the history and sociology of education. Analytical philosophy of education is meta to the discipline of education–to all the inquiries and thinking about education–in the sense that it does not seek to propound substantive propositions, either factual or normative, about education. It conceives of its task as that of analysis: the definition or elucidation of educational concepts like teaching, indoctrination, ability, and trait, including the concept of education itself; the clarification and criticism of educational slogans like Teach children, not subjects; The exploration of models used in thinking about education (e.g. , growth); and the analysis and evaluation of arguments and methods used in reaching conclusions about education, whether by teachers, administrators, philosophers, scientists, or laymen. To accomplish this task, analytical philosophy uses the tools of logic and linguistics as well as techniques of analysis that vary from philosopher to philosopher. Its results may be valued for their own sake, but they may also be helpful to those who seek more substantive empirical of normative conclusions about education and who try to be careful about how they reach them. This entry is itself an exercise in analytical philosophy of education. Normative philosophies or theories of education may make use of the results of such analytical work and of factual inquiries about human beings and the psychology of learning, but in any case they propound views about what education should be, what dispositions it should cultivate, why it ought to cultivate them, how and in whom it should do so, and what forms it should take. Some such normative theory of education is implied in every instance of educational endeavor, for whatever education is purposely engaged in, it explicitly or implicitly assumed that certain dispositions are desirable and that certain methods are to be used in acquiring or fostering them, and any view on such matters is a normative theory of philosophy of education. But not all such theories may be regarded as properly philosophical. They may, in fact, be of several sorts. Some simply seek to foster the dispositions regarded as desirable by a society using methods laid down by its culture. Here both the ends and the means of education are defined by the cultural tradition. Others also look to the prevailing culture for the dispositions to be fostered but appeal as well to experience, possibly even to science, for the methods to be used. In a more pluralistic society, an educational theory of a sort may arise as a compromise between conflicting views about the aids, if not the methods, of education, especially in the case of public schools. Then, individuals or groups within the society may have conflicting full-fledged philosophies of education, but the public philosophy of education is a working accommodation between them. More comprehensive theories of education rest their views about the aims and methods of education neither on the prevailing culture nor on compromise but on basic factual premises about humans and their world and on basic normative premises about what is good or right for individuals to seek or do. Proponents of such theories may reach their premises either by reason (including science) and philosophy or by faith and divine authority. Both types of theories are called philosophies of education, but only those based on reason and philosophy are properly philosophical in character; the others might better be called theologies of education. Even those that are purely philosophical may vary in complexity and sophistication. In such a full-fledged philosophical normative theory of education, besides analysis of the sorts described, there will normally be propositions of the following kinds: 1.Basic normative premises about what is good or right; 2. Basic factual premises about humanity and the world; 3. Conclusions, based on these two kinds of premises, about the dispositions education should foster; 4. Further factual premises about such things as the psychology of learning and methods of teaching; and 5. Further conclusions about such things as the methods that education should use. For example, Aristotle argued that the Good equals happiness equals excellent activity; that for a individual there are two kinds of excellent activity, one intellectual (e.g. , doing geometry) and one moral (e. g. , doing just actions); that therefore everyone who is capable of these types of excellent activity should acquire a knowledge of geometry and a disposition to be just; that a knowledge of geometry can be acquired by instruction and a disposition to be just by practice, by doing just actions; and that the young should be given instruction in geometry and practice in doing just actions. In general, the more properly philosophical part of such a full normative theory of education will be the proposition it asserts in (1),(2), and (3); for the propositions in (4) and hence (5) it will, given those in (3), most appropriately appeal to experience and science. Different philosophers will hold different views about the propositions they use in (1) and (2) and the ways in which these propositions may be established. Although some normative premises are required in (1) as a basis for any line of reasoning leading to conclusions in (3) or (5) about what education should foster or how it should do this, the premises appearing in (2) may be of various sorts–empirical, scientific, historical, metaphysical, theological, or epistemological. No one kind of premise is always necessary in (2) in every educational context. Different philosophers of education will, in any case, have different views about what sorts of premises it is permissible to appeal to in (2). All must agree, however, that normative premises of the kind indicated in (1) must be appealed to. Thus, what is central and crucial in any normative philosophy of education is not epistemology, metaphysics, or theology, as is sometimes thought, but ethics, value theory, and social philosophy. Role Let us assume, as we have been doing, that philosophy may be analytical, speculative, or narrative and remember that it is normally going on in a society in which there already is an educational system. Then, in the first place, philosophy may turn its attention to education, thus generating philosophy of education proper and becoming part of the discipline of education. Second, general philosophy may be one of the subjects in the curriculum of higher education and philosophy of education may be, and presumably should be, part of the curriculum of teacher education, if teachers are to think clearly and carefully about what they are doing. Third, in a society in which there is a single system of education governed by a single prevailing theory of education, a philosopher may do any of four things with respect to education: he may analyze the concepts and reasoning used in connection with education in order to make peoples thinking about it as clear, explicit, and logical as possible; he may seek to support the prevailing system by providing more philosophical arguments for the dispositions aimed at and the methods used; he may criticize the system and seek to reform it in the light of some more philosophical theory of education he has arrived at; or he may simply teach logic and philosophy to future educators and parents in the hope that they will apply them to educational matters. Fourth, in a pluralistic society like the United States, in which the existing educational enterprise or a large segment of it is based on a working compromise between conflicting views, a philosopher may again do several sorts of things. He may do any of the things just mentioned. In the United States in the first half of the twentieth century professional philosophers tended to do only the last, but at the end of the twentieth century they began to try to do more. Indeed, there will be more occasions for all of these activities in a pluralistic society, for debate about education will always be going on or threatening to be resumed. A philosopher may even take the lead in formulating and improving a compromise theory of education. He might then be a mere eclectic, but he need not be, since he might defend his compromise plan on the basis of a whole social philosophy. In particular, he might propound a whole public philosophy for public school education, making clear which dispositions it can and should seek to promote, how it should promote them, and which ones should be left for the home, the church, and other private means of education to cultivate. In any case, he might advocate appealing to scientific inquiry and experiment whenever possible. A philosopher may also work out a fully developed educational philosophy of his own and start an experimental school in which to put it into practice, as John Dewey did; like Dewey, too, he may even try to persuade his entire society to adopt it.Then he would argue for the desirability of fostering certain dispositions by certain methods, partly on the basis of experience and science and partly on the basis of premises taken from other parts of his philosophy–from his ethics and value theory, from his political and social philosophy, or from his epistemology, metaphysics, or philosophy of mind. It seems plausible to maintain that in a pluralistic society philosophers should do all of these things, some one and some another. In such a society a philosopher may at least seek to help educators concerned about moral, scientific, historical, aesthetic, or religious education by presenting them, respectively, with a philosophy of morality, science, history, art, or religion from which they may draw conclusions about their aims and methods. He may also philosophize about the discipline of education, asking whether it is a discipline, what its subject matter is, and what its methods, including the methods of the philosophy of education, should be. Insofar as the discipline of education is a science (and one question here would be whether it is a science) this would be a job for the philosopher of science in addition to one just mentioned. Logicians, linguistic philosophers, and philosophers of science may also be able to contribute to the technology of education, as it has come to be called, for example, to the theory of testing or of language instruction. Finally, in a society that has been broken down by some kind of revolution or has newly emerged from colonialism, a philosopher may even supply a new full-fledged normative philosophy for its educational system, as Karl Marx did for Russia and China. In fact, as in the case of Marx, he may provide the ideology that guided the revolution in the first place. Plato tried to do this for Syracuse, and the philosophes did it for France in the eighteenth century. Something like this may be done wherever the schools dare to build a new society, as many ask schools to do. Dewey once said that since education is the process of forming fundamental dispositions toward nature and our fellow human beings, philosophy may even be defined as the most general theory of education. Here Dewey was thinking that philosophy is the most general normative theory of education, and what he said is true if it means that philosophy, understood in its widest sense as including theology and poetry as well as philosophy proper, is what tells us what to believe and how to feel about humanity and the universe. It is, however, not necessarily true if it refers to philosophy in the narrower sense or means that all philosophy is philosophy of education in the sense of having the guidance of education as its end. This is not the whole end of classical philosophy or even of philosophy as reconstructed by Dewey; the former aimed at the truth rather than at the guidance of practice, and the latter has other practical ends besides that of guiding the educational enterprise. Certainly, analytical philosophy has other ends. However, although Dewey did not have analytical philosophy in mind, there is nevertheless a sense in which analytical philosophy can also be said to be the most general theory of education. Although it does not seek to tell us what dispositions we should form, it does analyze and criticize the concepts, arguments, and methods employed in any study of or reflection upon education. Again it does not follow that this is all analytical philosophy is concerned with doing. Even if the other things it does–for example, the philosophy of mind or of science–are useful to educators and normative theorists of education, as, it is hoped, is the case, they are not all developed with this use in mind. See also: ARISTOTLE; AUGUSTINE, ST. ; BAGLEY, WILLIAM C. ; BODE, BOYD H. ; BRAMELD, THEODORE; CHILDS, JOHN L. ; COMENIUS, JOHANN; COUNTS, GEORGE S. ; DEWEY, JOHN; FREIRE, PAULO; HERBERT, JOHANN; JAMES, WILLIAM; KILPATRICK, WILLIAM H. ; MONTESSORI, MARIA; NEILL, A. S. ; PESTALOZZI, JOHANN; PLATO; ROUSSEAU, JEAN-JACQUES; WHITEHEAD, ALFRED NORTH. BIBLIOGRAPHY ANDERSON, R. N. , et al. 1968. Foundation Disciplines and the Study of Education. Toronto: Macmillan. ARCHAMBAULT, REGINALD D. , ed. 1965. Philosophical Analysis and Education. New York: Humanities Press. FRANKENA, WILLIAM K. , ed. 1965. Philosophy of Education. New York: Macmillan. JARRET, JAMES L. , ed. 1969. Philosophy for the Study of Education. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. LUCAS, CHRISTOPHER J. 1969. What Is Philosophy of Education? New York: Macmillan. MORRIS, VAN CLEVE. 1969. Modern Movements in Educational Philosophy. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. OCONNOR, DANIEL JOHN. 1957. Introduction to the Philosophy of Education. London: Routledge. PARK, JOE. 1968. Selected Readings in the Philosophy of Education, 3rd edition. New York: Macmillan. SCHEFFLER, ISRAEL, ed. 1966. Philosophy and Education, 2nd edition. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. WILLIAM K. FRANKENA Philosophy of education is a field characterized not only by broad theoretical eclecticism but also by a perennial dispute, which started in the mid-twentieth century, over what the scope and purposes of the discipline even ought to be. In the Philosophy of Education article that was included in the previous edition of this encyclopedia, William Frankena wrote, In a sense there is no such thing as the philosophy of education (p. 101). During certain periods of the history of the philosophy of education, there have been dominant perspectives, to be sure: At one time, the field was defined around canonical works on education by great philosophers (Plato of ancient Greece, the eighteenth-century Swiss-born Frenchman Jean-Jacques Rousseau, and others); at other times, the field was dominated, in the United States at least, by the figure of John Dewey (1859–1952) and educational Progressivism; at other times, the field was characterized by an austere analytical approach that explicitly rejected much of what had come before in the field as not even being proper philosophy at all. But even during these periods of dominance there were sharp internal disputes within the field (such as feminist criticisms of the Great Man approach to philosophy of education and vigorous critiques of the analytical method). Such disputes can be read off the history of the professional societies, journals, and graduate programs that institutionalize the field, and they can be documented through a succession of previous encyclopedia articles, which by definition attempt to define and delimit their subject matter. These sorts of struggles over the maintenance of the disciplinary boundary, and the attempt to define and enforce certain methods as paramount, are hardly unique to philosophy of education. But such concerns have so preoccupied its practitioners that at times these very questions seem to become the substance of the discipline, nearly to the exclusion of thinking about actual educational problems. And so it is not very surprising to find, for example, a book such as Philosophers on Education. Consisting of a series of essays written by professional philosophers entirely outside the discipline of philosophy of education, the collection cites almost none of the work published within the discipline; because the philosophers have no doubts about the status of the discipline of philosophy of education, they have few qualms about speaking authoritatively about what philosophy has to say to educators. On the other  hand, a fruitful topic for reflection is whether a more self-critical approach to philosophy of education, even if at times it seems to be pulling up its own roots for examination, might prove more productive for thinking about education, because this very tendency toward self-criticism keeps fundamental questions alive and open to reexamination. Any encyclopedia article must take a stance in relation to such disputes. However much one attempts to be comprehensive and dispassionate in describing the scope and purpose of a field, it is impossible to write anything about it without imagining some argument, somewhere, that would put such claims to challenge. This is especially true of categorical approaches, that is, those built around a list of types of philosophy of education, or of discrete schools of thought, or of specific disciplinary methods. During the period of particular diversity and interdisciplinarity in the field that has continued into the twenty-first century, such characterizations seem especially artificial–but even worse than this, potentially imperial and exclusionary. And so the challenge is to find a way of characterizing the field that is true to its eclecticism but that also looks back reflexively at the effects of such characterizations, including itself, in the dynamics of disciplinary boundary maintenance and methodological rule-setting that are continually under dispute. One way to begin such an examination is by thinking about the impulses that draw one into this activity at all: What is philosophy of education for? Perhaps these impulses can be more easily generalized about the field than any particular set of categories, schools of thought, or disciplinary methods. Moreover, these impulses cut across and interrelate approaches that might otherwise look quite different. And they coexist as impulses within broad philosophical movements, and even within the thought of individual philosophers themselves, sometimes conflicting in a way that might help explain the tendency toward reflexive self-examination and uncertainty that so exercises philosophy of education as a field. The Prescriptive Impulse The first impulse is prescriptive. In many respects this is the oldest and most pervasive inclination: to offer a philosophically defended conception of what the aims and activities of teaching ought to be. In some instances, as in Platos Republic, these prescriptions derive from an overall utopian vision; in other instances, such as seventeenth-century English philosopher John Lockes Some Thoughts Concerning Education or Rousseaus Emile, they derive from a fairly detailed reconception of what the day-to-day activities of teaching should look like; in still other instances, such prescriptions are derived from other social or moral principles, as in various Kantian views of education (even though eighteenth-century German philosopher Immanuel Kant himself had very little to say on the subject). These prescriptive inclinations are in many respects what people expect from philosophy of education: a wiser perspective, a more encompassing social vision, a sense of inspiration and higher purpose. It is what people usually mean when they talk about having a philosophy of education. A broad range of perspectives in the field share this prescriptive impulse: many of these perspectives can be comprised in what was once called the isms approach (perennialism, idealism, realism, Thomism, and so on)–the idea that a set of philosophical premises could generate a comprehensive and consistent educational program. For many years, working out the details of these philosophies of education was considered the main substance of the field, and the debates among the isms were typically at the very basic level debates among fundamentally different philosophical premises. An implication of this approach was that disagreements tended to be broadly paradigmatic in the sense that they were based on all-or-none commitments; one could not, of course, talk about a synthesis of realist and idealist worldviews. One wag has suggested that the isms have more recently been replaced by the ists–less purely philosophical and more social/political theories that now typify many scholars working in philosophy of education (Marxists, feminists, multiculturalists, postmodernists, and so on). These will be characterized as critically oriented philosophies below, but at this stage it is important to see that these perspectives can be equally driven by the prescriptive impulse: many writers (for example, neo-Marxist advocates of Paulo Freires critical pedagogy) offer quite explicit accounts of how education ought to proceed, what it is for, and whose interests it ought to serve. The Analytical Impulse The second impulse that drives much of philosophy of education is analytical. In a broad sense this includes not only philosophical approaches specifically termed analytical philosophy (such as conceptual analysis or ordinary language analysis), but also a broader orientation that approaches the philosophical task as spelling out a set of rational conditions that educational aims and practices ought to satisfy, while leaving it up to other public deliberative processes to work out what they might be in specific. In this enlarged sense, the analytical impulse can be seen not only in analytical philosophy per se but also in studies that focus on the logical and epistemological criteria of critical thinking; in the diagnosis of informal fallacies in reasoning; In certain kinds of liberal theory that spell out broad principles of rights and justice but that remain silent on the specific ends that education ought to serve; and even in some versions of German philosopher Jurgen Habermass theory, which proposes a structure of communicative deliberation in which conversations must satisfy what he calls a set of general validity claims, but which does not specify or constrain in advance what that process of deliberation might yield. The analytical impulse is often seen as expressing a certain philosophical modesty: that philosophers do not prescribe to others what their educational choices ought to be, but simply try to clarify the rational procedures by which those choices should be arrived at. Here metaphors such as referees who try to adjudicate an ongoing activity but remain nonpartisan within it, or groundskeepers who pull up weeds and prepare the soil but do not decide what to plant, tend to predominate in how this version of philosophy of education is presented and justified to others. The idea that philosophy provides a set of tools, and that doing philosophy of education (as opposed to having a philosophy of education) offers a more workmanlike self-conception of the philosopher, stands in sharp contrast with the idea of philosophy as a system-building endeavor. Of course, it must be said that this impulse is not entirely free of the prescriptive inclination, either. For one thing, there is a prescriptiveness about the very tools, criteria, principles, and analytical distinctions that get imported into how problems are framed. These are implicitly (and often explicitly) presented as educational ideals themselves: promoting critical thinking or fostering the conditions for Habermasian communication in the classroom, for example. However rationally defended these might be, they will undoubtedly appear to some as imposed from on high. Moreover, at a deeper level, the analytic/prescriptive distinction is less than clear-cut: a theory of logic, or a theory of communication, however purely procedural it aspires to be, always expresses conceptions of human nature, of society, of knowledge, of language, that contains social and cultural elements that might appear natural or neutral to the advocates of those procedures, but that will be regarded as foreign and particularistic by others (why must I justify my educational choices by your criteria? ). This is not meant as a criticism of the analytical orientation, but it just shows how these impulses can and do coexist, even within accounts that regard themselves as primarily one or the other. The Critical Impulse Similarly, the third impulse, a critical orientation, can coexist with either or both of the others. The critical impulse, like the analytical one, shares the characteristic of trying to clear the ground of misconceptions and ideologies, where these misrepresent the needs and interests of disadvantaged groups; like the prescriptive impulse, the critical impulse is driven by a positive conception of a better, more just and equitable, society. Where the critical impulse differs from the others is in its conception of the contribution philosophy can play in serving these ends. From this orientation, philosophy is not just a set of tools or an abstract, programmatic theory; it is itself a substantive personal and political commitment, and it grows out of deeper inclinations to protect and serve the interests of specific groups. Hence the key philosophical ideas stressed in critically oriented philosophies of education (reflection, counterhegemony, a critique of power, an emphasis upon difference, and so on) derive their force from their capacity to challenge a presumably oppressive dominant society and enable put-upon individuals and groups to recognize and question their circumstances and to be moved to change them. As there are prescriptive and analytical elements in critically oriented philosophies of education, so there can be critical elements in the others. Philosophers of education more driven by a prescriptive or analytical impulse can and do share many of the same social and political commitments as critically oriented philosophers of education; and some of them may see their work as ultimately serving many of the same goals of criticizing hegemonic ideologies and promoting human emancipation. This is why these three impulses or orientations must not be seen as simple categories to which particular philosophies (or philosophers) can be assigned. Stressing their character as impulses highlights the motivational qualities that underlie, and frequently drive, the adoption of particular philosophical views. While philosophers tend to stress the force of argument in driving their adoption of such views, and while they do certainly change their minds because of argument and evidence, at some deeper level they are less prone to changing the very impulses that drive and give vigor to their philosophical investigations. By stressing the ways in which all three impulses can coexist within different philosophical schools of thought, and even within the inclinations of a given philosopher, this account highlights the complex and sometimes even contradictory character of the philosophical spirit. When philosophers of education teach or speak about their views, although they certainly put forth arguments, quotations of and references to literature, and so forth, at a deeper level they are appealing to a shared impulse in their audience, one that is more difficult to argue for directly, and without which the arguments themselves are unlikely to take hold. Implications of the Impulses for Philosophy of Education Given the existence of these three impulses, how can they help in providing an overview of the field of philosophy of education that does not fall into arguments about disciplinary boundary maintenance? First, these very broad orientations are in many respects easier to generalize within the field than would be any specific set of disciplinary criteria; many different kinds of philosophy of education can manifest these sorts of inclinations. Indeed, it makes for strange bedfellows when people consider that despite their vigorous paradigmatic differences they are actually motivated by very similar underlying philosophical commitments. Perhaps this recognition might create a stronger incentive for them to engage one another respectfully across those differences. Second, it is beneficial for philosophers to consider that the validity they attribute to certain kinds of arguments may not be driven simply by the objective force of those arguments, but also by a particular appeal those kinds of arguments have for them. This sort of reflectiveness might be fruitful for various reasons, but a significant benefit could be in raising a persons appreciation for why others may not be moved by the arguments that seem so patently obvious to that person; and why the force of argument alone may not be sufficient to generate philosophical agreement or reconcile disagreement. Given the pervasively eclectic and interdisciplinary nature of the field of philosophy of education, such a spirit of tolerance and inclusiveness, while not needing to be unbounded entirely, would be a valuable corrective to the historical tendency to establish the methodsor the philosophical school that will separate proper philosophy of education from the imposters. Advocates of more prescriptive approaches typically buttress their case for dominance by reference to canonical Great Works (Plato, ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle, Locke, Rousseau, Dewey). This sort of system-building across epistemological, ethical, and social/political issues is what the great philosophers do, and it is revealing that for them philosophy of education was rarely seen as a distinct area of inquiry but merely the working out in p

Chronic Expanding Hematoma in the Chest

Chronic Expanding Hematoma in the Chest A case of chronic expanding hematoma presenting as a huge mass in the chest Abstract: A 42-year-old man presented with a huge mass in the chest. The disease was recognized as a complain of chest pain and was successfully resected by surgery. He had a history of blunt chest injury 25 years ago. Magnetic resonance T2-weighted imaging demonstrated a mosaic pattern of various signal intensities. In cases of an intrathoracic mass with this imaging feature, with combined a past history of blunt chest injury, we should consider the existence of a chronic expanding hematoma. Keywords:Hematoma; thoracic tumor; chest injury; diagnosis Introduction Chronic expanding hematoma in the chest is a rare condition that often develops after thoracic surgery, thoracic injury or tuberculous pleuritis (1-4). In general, hematomas are naturally reabsorbed and rarely cause serious problems. Thoracic hematomas that develop slowly without symptoms until the mass compresses other organs are often difficult to early detection. Surgical removal is the first treatment for thoracic hematomas, but it is not easy to achieve a complete resection because of the presence of a dense fibrous adhesion to adjacent tissues (3-5). Herein, we describe a patient, with a history of blunt chest injury 25 years ago, who exhibited a huge chronic expanding hematoma in the chest treated by surgical resection successfully. Case report A 42-year-old man was admitted to our hospital complaining of chest dull pain. He did not have any other symptoms and had no history of thoracic operation or pulmonary disorders including tuberculosis. Twenty-five years earlier, at the age of 17, the patient had a blunt chest injury after a fight for which he did not seek medical help. He was a heavy smoker for 26 years. Physical and lab examination revealed no positive findings. Chest X-ray revealed a huge mass shadow in the anterior mediastinum, with few pleural effusion in the left pleural cavity. Computed tomography (CT) revealed a huge intrathoracic mass (10.2cmÃâ€"13.3cmÃâ€"17.9cm) with a tissue density adhered to the left pericardium (Figure 1). Calcification was not detected in the mass. Left pleural cavity had a moderate pleural effusion. The tissue content in the mass was not obvious enhanced following contrast administration. T2-weighted magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) revealed the mass containing various signal intensi ties, just like a mosaic pattern (Figure 2). Diagnostic thoracocentesis of the left pleural effusion was performed, but cytological examination showed only erythrocytes with a few inflammatory cells. Although we could not reach a conclusive diagnosis, our preoperative diagnoses were benign or low malignant tumors including teratoma, chronic empyema and aneurysmal bone cyst. In addition, the probability of complete resection of the lesion is higher than incomplete resection based on the preoperative imaging evaluation. So a surgical resection of the lesion was decided. A left posterolateral thoracotomy along the 5th intercostal space with combined a cut off of the 5th and 6th posterior rib was performed for the purpose of obtaining a wide operative field. The mass which located in the left anterior mediastinu had a thickened and hard capsule, and was completely adhered to thymus, pericardium and part of upper lobe of left lung. Diaphragm just had a mild adhesion to the mass. Completely resection of the huge mass was achieved, including most thymus, most left parietal pericardium and partial upper lobe of left lung. The total operation time was 140 minutes and the total blood loss was 250 ml. Macroscopic observations showed that the resected mass contained a dense fibrous capsule with hemorrhagic materials and necrotic tissues (Figure 3). Pathological examination showed that the mass was an old hematoma surrounded by dense fibrous tissues and the center was consisted of fresh and old hemorrhages (Figure 4). There was no evidence of malignancy or infection in the mass, thymus, pericardium and lung. The postoperative course was uneventful and the patient's chest dull pain disappeared. The patient was discharged without complications. There was no sign of recurrence for two months after the operation. Discussion Chronic expanding hematoma first advocated by Reid et al (6). is a rare clinicopathologic entity that can occur in various locations, such as scrotum, kidney, thigh, retroperitoneum, cerebrum and chest (6-9). The most frequently reports of chronic expanding hematoma was occured in the cerebrum, followed by occurred in the chest. The majority of reports of chronic expanding hematoma in the chest were come from Japan (1,3,5,10). To the best of our knowledge, this present case was the first case reported in China. Chronic expanding hematoma in the chest often develops after thoracic surgery, thoracic injury or tuberculous pleuritis (1-4). It can also develop in the absence of thoracic surgical treatment, injury or inflammatory disorders (5,10). A hematoma persists and increases in size more than one month after the initial hemorrhage is a chronic expanding hematoma. It is still unclear why hematomas grow continuously. Labadie and Glover (11) proposed a theory that microscopic hematomas forming after theinitial hemorrhage do not resolve naturally, and slowly grow due to repeated organization and hemorrhage from new fragile microvessels beneath the fibrous capsule. Various blood factors and its breakdown products that have inflammatory properties, are possibly associated with repeated exudation or hemorrhage from fragile microvessels resulting in inflammation. As was seen in our case, we presumed that the initial hemorrhage was caused by the blunt chest injury 25 years ago, and then the hematoma grow slowly due to repeated organization and hemorrhage from the fragile microvessels in the granulation tissue. Respiratory movements, heart beating or constant coughing under a negative pleural pressure favor the growth of thoracic hematomas to become a larger one than other locations (5). The diagnosis of chronic expanding hematoma in the chest is difficult due to its rarity, especially for those that develop slowly in patients with no history of surgery, trauma or tuberculosis. Chronic expanding hematoma in the chest should be differentiate from teratoma, chronic empyema or aneurysmal bone cyst (5). MRI has an important significance in diagnosis of chronic expanding hematoma. The mosaic pattern of various signal intensities on T2-weighted MRI was reported as specific feature of chronic expanding hematoma (10,12). These various signal intensities indicated fresh and old blood caused by repeated hemorrhage over time. MRI results showed a good correlation with pathology of the disease. Conclusions We conclude that the following characteristics may be helpful in diagnosing chronic expanding hematoma in the chest: (1) have a long course of disease with few symptoms; (2) once received chest surgery, had a history of chest injury or tuberculous pleuritis occurred; (3) T2-weighted MRI presents a mosaic pattern of various signal intensities; (4) preoperative biopsy of the lesion without positive found. Chronic expanding hematoma in the chest remains a very rare disease. However, it should be considered in the differential diagnosis when a patient has a mass in the chest with the above characteristics. Figure 1 Chest CT scan revealed a huge intrathoracic mass with a tissue density adhered to the left pericardium and a moderate pleural effusion in the left pleural cavity. Figure 2 T2-weighted MRI demonstrated a large well-defined mass in the chest, with a mosaic pattern of various signal intensities. Figure 3 Macroscopic observations showed that the resected mass contained a dense fibrous capsule with hemorrhagic materials and necrotic tissues. Figure 4 Pathological examination showed an old hematoma surrounded by fibrous tissues and revealed some dilated microvessels and blood stasis.

Modernist Design Styles in Architecture: Frank Lloyd Wright

Modernist Design Styles in Architecture: Frank Lloyd Wright Modernism appeared in the 20th century. Modernism is simple and with no decoration design style. Although this style was appear early 20th century and have different designers or architect have many spread. But still have too little modern architecture build in early 20th century. After World War II, they become many company and agency. And make this style be the top. Here have some architect is more famous. Walter Gropius, Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, Le Corbusier and Frank Lloyd Wright. Frank Lloyd Wright is one of the famous architect in early 20th century. He is a American Institute of Architects, interior designer, Writer and Educators. His design project is over thousand and finish about five hundred. And he believes that design should achieve harmony between humans and the environment. And it become Organic architecture. For example, Fallingwater is the famous on the world. This design can prove his idea. Also this design is one of the best architect on the American. More than 70 years of his career at Architects. He design different architecture. It including Office, Church, Skyscrapers, Hotel and Museum. Also he design some furniture and stained glass. In his life he write over 20 book and article. And he is the famous speakers. In 1991, American Institute of Architects call Wright â€Å"The best Architect†. He designed different architecture. And his design was famous. For example, Robie House, Imerial Hotel, Fallingwater, Taliesin West, The Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, Price Tower and Jonson Wax Headquarters. Also his idea was affected many designer. Someone said how Wright work change American architecture, but someone said â€Å"How didnt Frank Lloyd Wright change architecture in America I think is really the way to say it because it is hard to imagine what American architecture would be like or even probably world architecture without Frank Lloyd Wright. About the Organic architecture, he has a famous works. It called Fallingwater. Fallingwater build in 1934-1937. In 1991, members of the American institute of Architects named the house the â€Å" best all-time work of American architecture† and in 2007 , it was ranked twenty-ninth on the list of Amercian’s Favorite Architecture according to the AIA. About the design, the shape of the building look natural, casual, stretch. Also The main room of the building with an outdoor terrace, platforms and roads, intertwined, also obtained with the surrounding natural landscape with the effect of fusion. About the material, White concrete and stone let this design look merge in the environment. And this design is very special. Because the platform is above the waterfall, this design in that time is intensely. And this design was influence many architect. Also it cause the new design style. About the Taliesin West design, he thinks it has been linked with the desert. So he use loca l stone and concrete. Also the natural lighting is the main role. Because he believes the natural lighting can let inside the building connect to the outside. His idea has affected some architect. For example Neville Gruzman, Kendrick Bangs Kellogg, Alvar Aalto, Nari Gandhi and Bruce Goff. All of them have build Organic architecture. Such as Neville Gruzman. Hills House and Gruzman House is the famous organic architecture. Also Hills House is the work is thought of as a two 20th century houses: â€Å"Fallingwater† and â€Å"Farnsworth House†. And Gruzman House is use materials such as dark stained timbers and natural brick. His architect is conform Wright method. About Bruce Goff, he said that his hero is Wright and Sullivan. Then he started to contact the original design. Bavinger House is significant example of organic architecture. The house has no interior wall; instead there are a series of platforms at different height, with curtains that can be drawn for privacy. The design use many natural night, make the inside area connect to the outside. Kendrick Bangs Kellogg is an innovator of organic architecture. In 1955, he met Wright and the brief meeting provided an inspiration. His design is not fit neatly into the same with Wright, Bruce Goff or other organic architects. His building are studies of layered, segmented and unfolding space. And he design Onion house. It is a landmark of organic architecture. The design use employs translucent arching roof panels. Since with no outside walls, the division between interior and exterior consists of screen or stained glass. But someone maybe doesn’t know what organic architect is. So Wright explains that, it is term meant from nature, organic architecture was indeed a natural architecture. And now we finally understand what organic architect is. And he think good building is not one that hurts the landscape, but one which makes the landscape more beautiful than it was before the building was built. So he wants clean lines and simplicity. And disliked intricate detail and fussiness of the architectural styles. In addition to organic architect, Wright steel has affected other architect. For example John S. Van Bergen. And his style is Prairie style homes. About the Prairie style. In 1909, Wright developed what known as the Prairie Style. Typical Prairie style home is distinguished by horizontal lines on the exterior, emphasized by a low-pitched hipped roof. But Wright use different color, and let the ceiling heights and hallway widths to alternately compress and expand the sense of space. His design went beyond the building to the finest details of the interior space, include furniture, art glass and other interior design. And the famous prairie style architect is Robie House. It was designed in 1908. Frank Lloyd Wright’s designs of home and building have inspired generations of architects, including most of what is called â€Å"modern architecture.† His influence is international—many other countries have considered Frank Lloyd Wright’s designs as a major template of their contemporary styles. More than 30 states in the United States possess Frank Lloyd Wright structures and most architectural critics agree with that every state in the country has buildings that reflect Wright’s style. Nowadays, when human want to develop something else, and they will destroy the natural. So they must remember that Wright has said the human beings and nature can conexist. And it is important, even he is gone, but his architectural theory still affected other designer. But someone think he was arrogant man. Because he want to let his own considerable on his clients. For example, Fallingwater. The design is special and innovative. But despite there may be dangers he still carry out his out his design. I think his behavior is correct. Because if one’s creativity is easily affected by the others, then that one is not a qualified designer. Plagiarism: 24% http://encyclopedia.jrank.org/articles/pages/6404/Wright-Frank-Lloyd.html http://freshome.com/2012/09/03/10-great-architectural-lessons-from-frank-lloyd-wright/ http://translate.google.com.hk/translate?hl=zh-TWsl=enu=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_Lloyd_Wrightprev=/search%3Fq%3Dfrank%2Blloyd%2Bwright%2Binfluences%2Bon%2Barchitecture%26sa%3DN%26biw%3D1367%26bih%3D840 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruce_Goff http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neville_Gruzman http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kendrick_Bangs_Kellogg http://www.distinctbuild.ca/neville_gruzman_architect.php Can teachers promote democracy in the classroom? Can teachers promote democracy in the classroom? Democracy is a highly desirable but contested concept in education, argues Paul R. Carr.  [1]  However, little is known about how current and future educators perceive, experience and relate to democracy, which could have a significant impact on how students learn about, and become involved in civic engagement and democracy.  [2]   Study at a university in northeast Ohio This study was aimed at exploring the perspectives, experiences and perceptions of current and future educators who are students at a university in northeast Ohio. This study focused on two themes; attitudes towards democracy and attitudes towards democracy and education. With regards to the first theme, when asked to define democracy, respondents, most frequently, referred to a form of government, often alluding to elections and voting. Many answers contained similar combinations of words about it being a government by the people and for the people or a government in which the people hold the power rather than government officials. Voting seems to be the central focus for the majority of respondents. With regards to the second theme, a large number of respondents did not make a direct connection between education and democracy. Part of the reason for this is perhaps the discomfort some respondents exhibited vis-à  -vis politics. Most respondents admitted to not having a truly democratic educational experience during their high school years. Of particular note is that most of the students viewed democracy in education as being uniquely or primarily associated with elections. A number of reasons were provided to explain why the respondents educational experiences were not considered democratic, including the curriculum and minority issues; such issues were ignored by the school. In a democracy, the majority rules, yet the minority groups would not be ignored. One prevalent comment postulated that; The students do not govern the classroom; the teacher is the dictator. The students do not vote for the teacher; the teacher is appointed. Given that in a democracy the people hold the p ower, the students are correct in saying that the school that they attended was not democratic. Racial discrimination was highlighted by a student, who contributed that There is no fairness in the classroom; the teachers expect African-Americans to do poorly; they dont challenge us in advanced courses. In a proper functioning democracy, all the students would be given equal opportunities. When asked about whether their high school experience had an impact on their thinking about democracy, a small minority indicated in the affirmative, whereas most of the respondents were less positive. Many more respondents, however, echoed the sentiment that their high school had avoided the subject or even, more drastically, failed them in not preparing them to deal with such issues. As a middle-ground response to the question about a democratic experience in high school, a number of respondents highlighted that this consisted of a single class on government or politics. When asked about whether teachers should strive to inculcate a sense of democracy in students, the vast majority of respondents agreed strongly. Yet students are not to be indoctrinated by a set of values which the teacher decides to be the best; they are to be left free to abide with and live their life in line with any values that they choose. Some of the respondents stated that teaching about politics is not the teachers job, but the government should take care of that. Furthermore, there were some who stated that politics was not part of their area of study, thus there was no need to study about democracy.  [3]  The fact that there are students at university level whom are not interested in democracy is quite worrying, especially when this reality is tied to the fact that they do not put pressure on the governments and the school administrations to practice democratic practices in the classrooms. In this case, the teachers would find themselves in a dilemma; should they or sh ould not they work towards democratic practices in the classroom? Democratic Classrooms and Discipline Harvey Craft  [4]  commented that classroom management often includes a large dose of suppressive techniques intended to simply control. In recent years a movement has emerged to teach democracy in schools by being democratic. Dozens of books, organizations, and incentives have grown from the new emphasis on democratic schools. Democratic schools emphasize the development of mutual respect and trust between students and teachers. The process of transforming a school to a democratic school requires special training for staff members. Teachers will learn some management skills that reflect democracy and mutual respect. There is list of management techniques for teachers that promote democracy and give students an idea of what democracy is all about. According to Craft, the teacher should explain that rules must encourage free and honest exchanges in an orderly manner. The teacher should engage students in discussions about the value of mutual trust and respect, and discussions about rights, responsibilities, and privileges. Another discussion that students should be allowed to participate in is that regarding the limitations of freedoms, particularly freedom of speech, and discussions about moral behaviour. The teacher should allow students to participate in the development of rules and consequences. The students are to be given the opportunity to develop their bill of rights, in this way it would be clear both for the students and for the teachers what their rights and obligations are. The teacher should plan regular lessons about character development. The students are to be prepared how to behav e and act in a democratic society. Craft continued to argue that students should have the right to call for discussions whenever an issue that affects the whole class crops up. They should also have the right to vote on matters that affect them. The teacher should set goals for the class that reflect the development of responsibility. Moreover, students are to be given opportunities to practice responsibility. An example might be to allow students to sharpen pencils without asking permission, provided they can properly determine a time that does not interrupt or distract others.  [5]   Circle time a democratic classroom setting A democratic classroom setting is that when the class is set up in the form of a circle. In this way, people get to talk democratically about problems with equal respect for everybody. When circle time takes place, students and the teacher are to be seated on the same level so as to represent their equality. Sometimes there needs to be a spare chair / space so people can move into the space and meet people who they have not met before. Often circle time starts with something quiet like talk but later there can be games so you can move round and meet new people. Wherever possible, the teacher adheres to the same rules as the students so as to express the equality between the two; teacher and students. In the initial stages a special object will be passed around, only the person holding the object will speak, the others would listen. Everyone gets a chance to speak, yet no one has to if they do not want to. Usually the teacher will ask for a volunteer to start a new topic. Children will be encouraged to talk clearly and speak to the circle as a whole and not just toward the teacher. Any criticism passed is to be constructive criticism.  [6]   Free schools Some believe that democracy in the education system means that the child would have a free choice whether to attend any lessons at all. If he decides to attend, he should have the choice to choose which lessons he will attend to. According to this school of thought, neither the parents, nor society, not even the government should have a say on the education of children. They are to be left completely free to make up their own mind. Following on from this it would be reasonable to expect that a child would have some say over the curriculum, the day-to-day running of the school and even the appointment of teachers. Both students and teachers would have the right to call a meeting when they feel that there is the need of one. Some would argue that this idea is in favour of anarchy within the educational field. The critics of this school believe that this idea is the perfect formula for chaos and disaster. The people who believe in this radical idea refer to some schools which adhered to this practice. The Albany Free School in New York, USA, the Booroobin Sudbury School in Queensland, Australia, the Sudbury Valley School in Massachusetts, USA, and Summerhill in Norfolk, England. There are some differences between these free schools, such as the degree to which students have a say over economic decisions. But all these schools have one thing in common without which they probably could not function; the spirit of community. When living in a community, children learn to respect others.  [7]   Case study of a Free School The Albany Free School has been functioning for the past 32 years. This school does not follow a curriculum and there are not any compulsory classes. Classroom sessions that do take place are usually informal and last as long as the interest holds. There are not any tests or grades either. This school states that learning happens best when it happens for its own sake. A childs innate desire to learn is a far more powerful motivating force than any external reward or threat. As regarding behaviour, the teachers do not monitor over the pupils but the students learn to manage themselves. During the meetings, both the students and the teachers have an equal vote, thus they share the responsibilities for the decisions taken. One issue which is discussed during these meetings is the school policy within various areas. Each day unfolds organically according to peoples moods and interests, to the season and the weather, and to local and even world events. They reserve the right to make plans quite spontaneously. This does not mean that there are not plenty of ongoing, focused activities and projects. On any given day students might be found writing poetry and short stories, creating books, magazines and works of art, rehearsing and performing plays, or learning French or algebra. There are daily languages and maths classes for students who choose to tackle their basic skills in a more orderly and directed way. There are also classes in areas like history and science depending on student interest. As one would expect, the word competition does not exist in this school. Children with mental health problems who attend this school do not take drugs to solve their problem. The system which the school uses to function renders the drugs unnecessary.  [8]  These types of schools have received a lot of criticism. Critics believe that these schools are to radical and so not the way that democracy should be practised. Conclusion Through a systematic review of what democracy means, combined with how schools can become engaged in democratic practices, students will enhance, not only their academic, but also their socio-cultural and political experience, thus enriching themselves and the society in which they reside.  [9]